3^rd International Congress on Bacteriology and Infectious Diseases August 04-06, 2015 Valencia, Spain

S. pyogenes is the cause of many important human diseases, ranging from mild superficial skin infections to life-threatening systemic diseases. Infections due to certain strains of S. pyogenes can be associated with the release of bacterial toxins. Since 1978, enteropathogenic E. coli have come to be appreciated anew as a separate class of diarrheagenic E. coli that cause diarrhea by distinct pathogenic mechanisms. The relative importance of enteropathogenic E. coli as a cause of sporadic diarrhea in both industrialized and developing countries needs to be reassessed. Some strains of V. cholerae cause the disease cholera. CTXφ (also called CTXphi) is a filamentous phage that contains the genes for cholera toxin. Infectious CTXφ particles are produced when V. cholerae infects humans. Phage particles are secreted from bacterial cells without lysis. When CTXφ infects V. cholerae cells, it integrates into specific sites on either chromosome. Gene transfer is fairly common amongst bacteria and recombination of different V. cholerae genes can lead to new virulent strains. Typhoid fever occurs when Salmonella bacteria enter the lymphatic system and cause a systemic form of salmonellosis. Endotoxins first act on the vascular and nervous apparatus, resulting in increased permeability and decreased tone of the vessels, upset thermal regulation, vomiting and diarrhea. In severe forms of the disease, enough liquid and electrolytes are lost to upset the water-salt metabolism, decrease the circulating blood volume and arterial pressure, and cause hypovolemic shock. Septic shock may also develop. Shock of mixed character (with signs of both hypovolemic and septic shock) are more common in severe salmonellosis. Oliguria and azotemia develop in severe cases as a result of renal involvement due to hypoxia and toxemia. An estimated 700 million infections occur worldwide each year. While the overall mortality rate for these infections is 0.1%, over 650,000 of the cases are severe and invasive, and have a mortality rate of 25%. Diarrhea is a leading killer of children, accounting for 9 per cent of all deaths among children under age 5 worldwide. In 2013, this translated into 1,600 young children dying each day, or about 580,000 children a year. Most deaths from diarrhea occur among children less than 2 years of age living in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Despite this heavy toll, progress is being made. From 2000 to 2013, the total annual number of deaths from diarrhea among children under 5 decreased by more than 50 per cent – from over 1.2 million to fewer than 0.6 million. Many more children could be saved through the widespread use of a simple solution of oral rehydration salts (ORS) and zinc supplementation. Since 2004, UNICEF and the World Health Organization (WHO) have recommended treating childhood diarrhea by replacing fluids through oral rehydration therapy. Along with continued feeding, oral rehydration salts (ORS) and zinc supplements are the recommended methods for treating diarrhea and these could be saving the lives of hundreds of thousands of children each year if they were available to all. These interventions have proved cost-effective, affordable and relatively straightforward to implement. However, worldwide, just about 40 per cent of children under age 5 with diarrhea receive the recommended treatment of oral rehydration therapy and continued feeding. Coverage of this treatment package is lowest in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia (36 per cent and 38 per cent, respectively), the regions with the most deaths from diarrhea. Cholera remains a global threat and is one of the key indicators of social development. While the disease no longer poses a threat to countries with minimum standards of hygiene, it remains a challenge to countries where access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation cannot be guaranteed. Almost every developing country faces cholera outbreaks or the threat of a cholera epidemic. Dehydration, also known as hypohydration, is not enough body water, with an accompanying disruption of metabolic processes. The term dehydration may be used loosely to refer to any condition where fluid volume is reduced; most commonly, it refers to hypernatremia (loss of free water and the attendant excess concentration of salt), but is also used to refer to hypovolemia (loss of blood volume, particularly plasma). This occurs mostly in children and can be categorized under pediatric bacteriology. Dehydration occurs when water loss exceeds water intake, usually due to exercise or disease. Most people can tolerate a three to four percent decrease in body water without difficulty. A five to eight percent decrease can cause fatigue and dizziness. Over ten percent can cause physical and mental deterioration, accompanied by severe thirst. A decrease more than fifteen to twenty-five percent of the body water is invariably fatal. Mild dehydration is characterized by thirst and general discomfort and usually resolved with oral rehydration. In the end of the 1980´s and early 1990´s approximately 5000 people (incidence 56/100,000) were reported with salmonella infection. The number of reported cases declined in the mid 2000´s to 3500 but has in recent years increased slightly. In 2013, 2838 cases were reported. The majority (approximately 80-85%) of the reported cases were infected abroad. The low number of cases infected domestically, out of the total number of reported cases, reflects the favourable salmonella situation of the Swedish food-producing animals. In recent years, it has become more common for different types of vegetables to be associated with salmonella outbreaks. These types of products often come from countries other than Sweden, and are often eaten without being heat-treated first.

The innate immune system and the adaptive immune system each comprise both humoral and cell-mediated components. Different animal species can be more or less resistant to specific pathogens. Within a species, individual organisms may be more or less susceptible to a pathogen based on age, nutrition, stress, disease state, and chemicals in their environment. Whether a pathogen can cause disease in a host is dependent not only on the virulence of the pathogen, but also on the genetic background and health of the host. Some species have an innate susceptibility to a pathogen not shared with other related hosts. For example, humans are the only host for the agents of syphilis, gonorrhea, measles and poliomyelitis. In contrast, we have innate resistance to canine distemper virus and feline leukemia virus. These differences in susceptibility may be related to a number of factors. The resistant host may lack a cellular receptor required by the pathogen for attachment or penetration of the host. The temperature of the host may also preclude the growth of a potential pathogen. Individuals within a species can also exhibit different susceptibility or resistance to a pathogen when compared to others. The age of an individual can have an overall effect on disease resistance, with the very young and the very old being more susceptible to infection by a wide variety of pathogens. Stress in the form of extreme exertion, shock, a change in environment, climate change, nervousness or muscle fatigue can have a negative impact on health. Each of these conditions is thought to increase the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex, causing a suppression of the inflammatory response, thereby facilitating infection. 1. Differences in susceptibility to certain pathogens -Absence of specific tissue or cellular receptors for attachment (colonization) by the pathogen. -Temperature of the host and ability of pathogen to grow. -Lack of the exact nutritional requirements to support the growth of the pathogen. -Lack of a target site for a microbial toxin. 2. Anatomical defense The structural integrity of the body surfaces, i.e., the skin and mucous membranes, forms an effective barrier to initial lodgment or penetration by microorganisms. The skin is a very effective barrier to bacterium, so that no bacterium by itself is known to be able to penetrate unbroken skin. Of course, a puncture, cut or scrape in the skin could introduce infectious bacteria. The mucous membranes are more vulnerable to penetration by infectious bacteria but still pose a formidable barrier of mucus and antimicrobial substances. The anatomical defenses are associated with all other aspects of non-cellular immunity, including individual resistance, mechanical resistance, chemical resistance and resistance established by the normal flora. 3. Tissue bactericides, including complement 4. Microbial antagonism Microbial antagonism is the method of using established cultures of microorganisms to prevent the intrusion of foreign strains. When introduced to an already-colonized environment, an invasive strain of bacteria tends not to thrive and may go completely extinct. These 4 can be considered as non-cellular defense. 5.Inflammation : Inflammation is part of the complex biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as pathogens, damaged cells, or irritants. and 6.Phagocytosis: specific form of endocytosis involving the vascular internalization of solids such as bacteria by an organism, and is therefore distinct from other forms of endocytosis such as the vesicular internalization of various liquids 5 &6 are forms of cellular defense. Immune responses to antigens may be categorized as primary or secondary responses. The primary immune response of the body to antigen occurs on the first occasion it is encountered. Depending on the nature of the antigen and the site of entry this response can take up to 14 days to resolve and leads to the generation of memory cells with a high specificity for the inducing antigen. The humoral response, mediated by B cells with the help of T cells, produces high‐affinity and antigen‐specific antibodies. This is in contrast with the CD8 T‐cell response which leads to the generation of large numbers of antigen‐specific cells that are capable of directly killing infected cells. Antigen‐specific CD4 T cells, which provide help to B cells in the form of cytokines and other stimulatory factors, can also be expanded upon antigenic stimulation. The secondary response of both B‐ and T cells is observed following subsequent encounter with the same antigen and is more rapid leading to the activation of previously generated memory cells. This has some quantitative and qualitative differences from the primary response. Key Concepts: The innate immune system is the first line of defence against infectious agents. When this is breached, the adaptive immune system provides a more efficient response to clearing pathogens. The adaptive immune system has the capacity to ‘remember’ previous antigens, a process termed immunological memory. Antigen‐specific T cells are selected during a primary immune response and expand to produce clones of T cells with high specificity for the activating antigen. In a B cell primary response to a thymus‐dependent antigen, the immune system selects B cells with a high affinity and specificity for the antigen and these become memory cells.The selection of B cells with a high affinity for a given antigen occurs in the germinal centers of secondary lymphoid follicles and requires the enzyme activation‐induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and interactions with other immune cells.The ability to change the isotype of antibody produced (class switching) by a B cell also occurs in germinal centers and requires AID. In a secondary response to the same antigen, memory cells are rapidly activated. This process is quicker and more effective than the primary response. Antibody-mediated beta cellularis immune system, is the aspect of immunity that is mediated by macromolecules (as opposed to cell-mediated immunity) found in extracellular fluids such as secreted antibodies, complement proteins and certain antimicrobial peptides. Humoral immunity is so named because it involves substances found in the humours, or body fluids. Cell-mediated immunity is an immune response that does not involve antibodies, but rather involves the activation of phagocytes, antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Historically, the immune system was separated into two branches: humoral immunity, for which the protective function of immunization could be found in the humor (cell-free bodily fluid or serum) and cellular immunity, for which the protective function of immunization was associated with cells. CD4 cells or helper T cells provide protection against different pathogens. Cytotoxic T cells cause death by apoptosis without using cytokines, therefore in cell mediated immunity cytokines are not always present. The statistical errors identified in Infection and Immunity are comparable to those found in similar journals: 54% of the articles reviewed contained errors of analysis (20%), reporting (22%), or both (12%). The most common analysis errors are failure to adjust or account for multiple comparisons (27 studies), reporting a conclusion based on observation without conducting a statistical test (20 studies), and use of statistical tests that assume a normal distribution on data that follow a skewed distribution (at least 11 studies). The most common reporting errors are unlabeled or inappropriate error bars or measures of variability (15 studies) and failure to describe the statistical tests performed (12 studies).

Symbiosis in lichens is the mutually helpful symbiotic relationship of green algae and/or blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) living among filaments of a fungus. The fungus benefits from the algae or cyanobacteria because they produce food by photosynthesis. The algae or cyanobacteria benefit by being protected from the environment by the filaments of the fungus, which also gather moisture and nutrients from the environment, and (usually) provide an anchor to it. The lichen combination of fungus and/or algae and/or cyanobacteria has a very different form (morphology), physiology, and biochemistry than the parts growing by themselves. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation occurs in plants that harbor nitrogen-fixing bacteria within their tissues. The best-studied example is the association between legumes and bacteria in the genus Rhizobium. Rhizobium is the most well-known species of a group of bacteria that acts as the primary symbiotic fixer of nitrogen. These bacteria can infect the roots of leguminous plants, leading to the formation of lumps or nodules where the nitrogen fixation takes place. The bacterium’s enzyme system supplies a constant source of reduced nitrogen to the host plant and the plant furnishes nutrients and energy for the activities of the bacterium. About 90% of legumes can become modulated. In the soil the bacteria are free living and motile, feeding on the remains of dead organisms. Free living rhizobia cannot fix nitrogen and they have a different shape from the bacteria found in root nodules. They are regular in structure, appearing as straight rods; in root nodules the nitrogen-fixing form exists as irregular cells called bacteroids which are often club and Y-shaped. Plant defenses can be classified generally as constitutive or induced. Constitutive defenses are always present in the plant, while induced defenses are produced or mobilized to the site where a plant is injured. There is wide variation in the composition and concentration of constitutive defenses and these ranges from mechanical defenses to digestibility reducers and toxins. Many external mechanical defenses and large quantitative defenses are constitutive, as they require large amounts of resources to produce and are difficult to mobilize. A variety of molecular and biochemical approaches are used to determine the mechanism of constitutive and induced plant defenses responses against herbivore. The study can be categorized under plant bacteriology. Induced defenses include secondary metabolic products, as well as morphological and physiological changes. An advantage of inducible, as opposed to constitutive defenses, is that they are only produced when needed, and are therefore potentially less costly, especially when herbivory is variable. Xanthomonas is a genus of Proteobacteria, many of which cause plant diseases. Xanthomonas species can be easily spread in water, movement of infected material such as seed or propagation plants, and by mechanical means such as infected pruning tools. Upon contact with a susceptible host, bacteria enter through wounds or natural plant openings as a means to infect. They inject a number of effector proteins, including TAL effectors, into the plant by their secretion systems (i.e., type III secretion system). F. graminearum infects wheat spikes from anthesis through the soft dough stage of kernel development. The fungus enters the plant mostly through the flowers; however, the infection process is complex and the complete course of colonization of the host has not been described. Germ tubes seem not to be able to penetrate the hard, waxy surface of the lemma and palea which protect the flower. The fungus enters the plant through natural openings such as stomates, and needs soft tissue such as the flowers, anthers and embryo to infect the plant.From the infected floret, the fungus can grow through the rachis and cause severe damage in a short period of time under favorable conditions. Upon germination of the spores on the anthers and the surface of the developing kernel, hyphae penetrate the epicarp and spread through the seed coat. Successively, the different layers of the seed coat and finally the endosperm are colonized and killed. The large amount of literature about TMV and its choice for many pioneering investigations in structural biology (including X-ray diffraction), virus assembly and disassembly, and so on, are fundamentally due to the large quantities that can be obtained, plus the fact that it does not infect animals. After growing a few infected tobacco plants in a greenhouse and a few simple laboratory procedures, a scientist can easily produce several grams of the virus. As a result of this, TMV can be treated almost as an organic chemical, rather than an infective agent. In order to protect themselves from damage, plants have developed a wide variety of constitutive and inducible defenses. Constitutive (continuous) defenses include many preformed barriers such as cell walls, waxy epidermal cuticles, and bark. These substances not only protect the plant from invasion, they also give the plant strength and rigidity. In addition to preformed barriers, virtually all living plant cells have the ability to detect invading pathogens and respond with inducible defenses including the production of toxic chemicals, pathogen-degrading enzymes, and deliberate cell suicide. Plants often wait until pathogens are detected before producing toxic chemicals or defense-related proteins because of the high energy costs and nutrient requirements associated with their production and maintenance.

Anti-microbial is the agent that kills or restricts the bacterial growth. To fight against the potential bacteria now-a-days, the manufacturing companies are coming up with more advanced anti-microbial liquids/soaps/sanitizers. Immunization/Vaccination is one of the most cost-effective public health interventions to date, saving millions of lives1 and protecting countless children from illness and disability. As a direct result of immunization, polio is on the verge of eradication. Deaths from measles, a major child killer, declined by 71 per cent worldwide and by 80 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa between 2000 and 2011.2 And 35 of 59 priority countries have eliminated maternal and neonatal tetanus. Immunization has not yet realized its full potential, however. As of end-2013, 21.8 million children under 1 year of age worldwide had not received the three recommended doses of vaccine against diphtheria, tetanus and pertussis containing vaccine (DTP3), and 21.6 million children in the same age group had failed to receive a single dose of measles-containing vaccine. Given an estimated annual cohort of 133.6 million surviving infants, an additional 11.2 million children would need to have been reached during 2013 to attain 90% DTP3 coverage globally. In the spring of 2009, a new flu virus spread quickly across the United States and the world. The first U.S. case of H1N1 (swine flu) was diagnosed on April 15, 2009. By April 21, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) was working to develop a vaccine for this new virus. On April 26, the U.S. government declared H1N1 a public health emergency. By June, 18,000 cases of H1N1 had been reported in the United States. A total of 74 countries were affected by the pandemic. H1N1 vaccine supply was limited in the beginning. People at the highest risk of complications got the vaccine first. By November 2009, 48 states had reported cases of H1N1, mostly in young people. That same month, over 61 million vaccine doses were ready. Reports of flu activity began to decline in parts of the country, which gave the medical community a chance to vaccinate more people. 80 million people were vaccinated against H1N1, which minimized the impact of the illness. The CDC estimates that 43 million to 89 million people had H1N1 between April 2009 and April 2010. They estimate between 8,870 and 18,300 H1N1 related deaths. On August 10, 2010 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared an end to the global H1N1 flu pandemic. Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the world’s deadliest diseases: One third of the world’s population is infected with TB. In 2013, 9 million people around the world became sick with TB disease. There were around 1.5 million TB-related deaths worldwide. TB is a leading killer of people who are HIV infected. A total of 9,582 TB cases (a rate of 3.0 cases per 100,000 persons) were reported in the United States in 2013. Both the number of TB cases reported and the case rate decreased; this represents a 3.6% and 4.3% decline, respectively, compared to 2012. Measles Outbreaks Outbreaks in countries to which Americans often travel can directly contribute to an increase in measles cases in the U.S. Reasons for an increase in cases some years: 2015: The United States experienced a large, multi-state measles outbreak linked to an amusement park in California. The outbreak likely started from a traveler who became infected overseas with measles, then visited the amusement park while infectious; however, no source was identified. Analysis by CDC scientists showed that the measles virus type in this outbreak (B3) was identical to the virus type that caused the large measles outbreak in the Philippines in 2014. 2014: The U.S. experienced 23 measles outbreaks in 2014, including one large outbreak of 383 cases, occurring primarily among unvaccinated Amish communities in Ohio. Many of the cases in the U.S. in 2014 were associated with cases brought in from the Philippines, which experienced a large measles outbreak. In 2014, 1,151 people in the United States have been reported to have mumps. Since November 2014, CDC has received reports of people with mumps, who are affiliated with professional hockey teams. CDC is working with the states affected, as they conduct public health investigations. In 2013, 438 people from 39 states in the U.S. were reported to have mumps.

Clinical approach is the method where biopsy is used for diagnosis of an infection. Virtually every woman is affected by a gynecological condition or infection at some time during her life. Chlamydia, a sexually transmitted vaginal infection, is the most frequently reported infectious disease in the U.S. However, 75 percent of women have no symptoms and may not seek health care. Left untreated, 40 percent of women will develop PID and many of these women will become infertile. Group B streptococci (GBS) emerged dramatically in the 1970s as the leading cause of neonatal infection and as an important cause of maternal uterine infection. We review the epidemiology, diagnosis, and therapy of GBS perinatal infection. In 1996, the first national consensus guidelines were released. Since then, there has been a 70% reduction in early-onset neonatal GBS infection, but no decrease in late-onset neonatal GBS disease. In 2002, new national guidelines were released recommending 1) solely a screen-based prevention strategy, 2) a new algorithm for patients with penicillin allergy, and 3) more specific practices in certain clinical scenarios. Yet many clinical issues remain, including implementation of new diagnostic techniques, management of preterm rupture of membranes, use of alternative antibiotic approaches, improvement of compliance, prevention of low birth weight infants, emergence of resistant organisms, and vaccine development.